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By Anne-Laure Jousse

A brief history of the French language in Quebec

The French language came to North America with the first French settlers in the 17th century. French and British forces had long been at war before the final victory of Britain in the mid 18th century; after the loss of New France, France lost contact with its settlers and Quebec French became isolated from European French. The two languages evolved in different ways, leaving Quebec French with older forms of pronunciation and expressions that later died out in France. Until the emergence of radio and television broadcasting, French Canadian society had been completely dominated by English, which was the language of the ruling class.

During the 1960s, Quebec went through a period of intense change called the Révolution tranquille (Quiet Revolution). This period marked the transition from political conservatism and sociocultural immobility, mainly orchestrated by the Roman Catholic Church, to a modern era characterized by major social development and an increase of Quebecois control over the province’s economy. The Quiet Revolution was also characterized by the affirmation of the Quebecois identity, closely related to their linguistic affirmation.

The French language spoken in Quebec was no longer a simple linguistic matter, but became an ideological, political, academic, and economic issue — the symbol of a society willing to get rid of its alienated minority status. The modernization of Quebec society had repercussions on the language itself, which was seen by the francophone elite as underdeveloped and corrupted by its contact with English. Laws were voted to promote French as the only official language of the province of Quebec, and plans to replace pervasive English terminology were supported by the Office Québécois de la Langue Française. At the same time, an eager desire to standardize and to improve Quebec French in line with the Metropolitan French norm was observed. This drew criticism from a lot of Quebecois, who claimed that their language was an integral part of their identity. Today, even if the status of Quebec French still remains slightly ambiguous, the Quebecois have mainly lost their feeling of inferiority toward Metropolitan French. The media now uses what is called ‘standard Quebec French’, and people are proud of its deviations from European French.

Quebec French and Metropolitan French

There are several types of differences between Metropolitan French (MF) and Quebec French (QF). Besides phonetic differences that will not be addressed here, the more obvious ones are lexical. Here is an overview of what they look like.

There are plenty of words in QF that are falling out of use or sound old-fashioned in MF: for example, soulier (shoe) rather than chaussure in MF, bas (socks) instead of chaussette in MF. We can also observe some small discrepancies that can cause confusion, since word meanings are not always completely equivalent. For example, “birthday” is anniversaire in MF but more commonly fête in QF, while fête in MF (meaning “party”) is party in QF (pronounced as [paʀte]). Thus, the expression fête d’anniversaire (“birthday party”) is usually party de fête in QF. In QF foulard is the equivalent of both écharpe (scarf) and foulard (light scarf) in MF. Where MF requires a precise word for each relationship, the informal word chum in QF can encompass husband, common-law husband, and boyfriend.

But differences between these two forms of French go beyond the lexical level. Although some Quebecois tend to deny it, there are also some syntactic differences. One can observe the use of prepositions in QF where MF would not allow them. For instance, in QF il vient à tous les soirs (he comes every night) is il vient tous les soirs in MF. Twenty years ago, the verb aider (to help) was still a transitive verb with an indirect object: aider à quelqu’un instead of aider quelqu’un.

While the use of the interrogative pronoun in a declarative sentence such as je ne sais pas qu’est ce qu‘il faut faire is seen as an uneducated mistake in MF (where people say je ne sais pas ce qu’il faut faire), this form is commonly used in QF.

Finally, more surprisingly, morphological differences can be noticed between the two languages. While trampoline is a feminine noun in QF, it is a masculine one in MF. On the contrary, moustiquaire (mosquito net) is a feminine noun in MF and a masculine one in QF. Cash machine is translated as distributeur de billets in MF and distributrice de billets in QF. Some recent linguistic borrowings have different genders too: feta and mozzarella are feminine nouns in MF but masculine ones in QF; job is a masculine noun in MF and a feminine one in QF, and so forth. One can also observe some nouns with a floating gender in QF, for instance, sandwich is either feminine or masculine.

Quebec French and English

About two thirds of Montreal’s population are francophones, most of whom are bilingual. However, in Quebec City and rural Quebec, even the youngest aren’t necessarily fluent in English. Some people do not have any knowledge of English whatsoever. Yet, since the province of Quebec is surrounded by English-speaking regions (i.e. the rest of Canada and the United States), even if people fiercely fight it, QF is inevitably and strongly influenced by the English language. Some Anglicisms are so commonly used that they have become assimilated into the particularities of QF: for example, tomber en amour literally means “to fall in love,” and prendre une marche is literally “to take a walk.” There are a lot of mispronounced English words that have been introduced to QF, such as gagne from gang, bécosse (toilet) from back house, bobépine from bobby pin, paparmanne from peppermint, and pinotte from peanut.

One can observe some Anglicisms that are not the same as those in MF. We find in QF être conservateur (to be conservative), faire le party (to party), and avoir une date avec quelqu’un (to have a date with someone), where in MF one would say être prudent, faire la fête, and avoir un rendez-vous (galant). Instead of week-end, parking, and email commonly used in MF, QF uses fin de semaine, stationnement, and courriel respectively.

Even if the Office Québécois de la Langue Française has done a very good job of promoting French terminology in many technical areas, some of them are still dominated by English. For instance, a lot of Quebecois, even the non-English speakers, do not know the French equivalent for “windshield,” “muffler,” or “clutch.”

In asserting itself, Quebec French faces two issues: it stands between the ongoing invasion of English and the will to fight against it, and also between a desire to conform itself to Metropolitan French and to claim proudly its own particularities. Over the years, Quebec French has moved from a very popular English-mixed dialect to a valuable distinct and recognized French language. The Quebecois like to consider it as a true language and are eager to protect it, since it guarantees the liveliness of their particular culture in an English-speaking North America.

This article originally appeared on the OxfordWords blog.

Anne-Laure Jousse works as a lexicographer for Druide Informatique Inc. (Antidote) in Montreal after having studied French linguistics at both Paris VII and University of Montreal.

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By James Ker-Lindsay

There has rarely been a more interesting time to study secession. It is not just that the number of separatist movements appears to be growing, particularly in Europe, it is the fact that the international debate on the rights of people to determine their future, and pursue independence, seems to be on the verge of a many change. The calm debate over Scotland’s future, which builds on Canada’s approach towards Quebec, is a testament to the fact that a peaceful and democratic debate over separatism is possible. It may yet be the case that other European governments choose to adopt a similar approach; the most obvious cases being Spain and Belgium towards Catalonia and Flanders.

However, for the meanwhile, the British and Canadian examples remain very much the exception rather than the rule. In most cases, states still do everything possible to prevent parts of their territory from breaking away, often using force if necessary.

It is hardly surprising that most states have a deep aversion to secession. In part, this is driven by a sense of geographical and symbolic identity. A state has an image of itself, and the geographic boundaries of the state are seared onto the consciousness of the citizenry. For example, from an early age school pupils draw maps of their country. But the quest to preserve the borders of a country is rooted in a range of other factors. In some cases, the territory seeking to break away may hold mineral wealth, or historical and cultural riches. Sometimes secession is opposed because of fears that if one area is allowed to go its own way, other will follow.

For the most part, states are aided in their campaign to tackle separatism by international law and norms of international politics. While much has been made of the right to self-determination, the reality is that its application is extremely limited. Outside the context of decolonisation, this idea has almost always taken a backseat to the principle of the territorial integrity of states. This gives a country fighting a secessionist movement a massive advantage. Other countries rarely want to be seen to break ranks and recognise a state that has unilaterally seceded.

When a decision is taken to recognise unilateral declarations of independence, it is usually done by a state with close ethnic, political or strategic ties to the breakaway territory.Turkey’s recognition of the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus and Russia’s recognition of Abkhazia and South Ossetia are obvious examples. Even when other factors shape the decision, as happened in the case of Kosovo, which has been recognised by the United States and most of the European Union, considerable effort has been made by recognising states to present this as a unique case that should be seen as sitting outside of the accepted boundaries of established practice.

However, states facing a secessionist challenge cannot afford to be complacent. While there is a deep aversion to secession, there is always the danger that the passage of time will lead to the gradual acceptance of the situation on the ground. It is therefore important to wage a concerted campaign to reinforce a claim to sovereignty over the territory and prevent countries from recognising – or merely even unofficially engaging with – the breakaway territory.

At the same time, international organisations are also crucial battlegrounds. Membership of the United Nations, for example, has come to be seen as the ultimate proof that a state has been accepted by the wider international community. To a lesser extent, participation in other international and regional bodies, and even in sporting and cultural activities, can send the same message concerning international acceptance.

The British government’s decision to accept a referendum over Scotland’s future is still a rather unusual approach to the question of secession. Governments rarely accept the democratic right of a group of people living within its borders to pursue the creation of a new state. In most cases, the central authority seeks to keep the state together; and in doing so choosing to fight what can often be a prolonged campaign to prevent recognition or legitimisation by the wider international community.

James Ker-Lindsay is Eurobank EFG Senior Research Fellow on the Politics of South East Europe at the European Institute, London School of Economics and Political Science. He is the author of The Foreign Policy of Counter Secession: Preventing the Recognition of Contested States (2012) and The Cyprus Problem: What Everyone Needs to Know (2011), and a number of other books on conflict, peace and security in the Balkans and Eastern Mediterranean.

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Uhm…Kinda a day late, though today is the day government offices, etc. are closed in Quebec. Celebrations were everywhere in the province yesterday. I’m using the occasion as a warm-up drawing, cartoon-style. Have a great Monday!

According to the Freedom to Read website: Freedom to Read Week is an annual event that encourages Canadians to think about and reaffirm their commitment to intellectual freedom, which is guaranteed them under the Charter of Rights and Freedoms. Freedom to Read Week is organized by the Freedom of Expression Committee of the Book and Periodical Council.

Freedom to Read Week is February 26 - March 3, 2012.

Each year a Canadian author is awarded the Writers' Union of Canada's 2012 Freedom to Read Award. This year's recipient is Lawrence Hill who was honoured because of "his reasoned and eloquent response to the threat to burn his novel The Book of Negroes," according to Greg Hollingshead, chair of the Writers Union.

The full story was covered in a past entry about Lawrence Hill. A Dutch group called Foundation Honor and Restore Victims of Slavery in Suriname had planned to burn Hill's book to protest the use of the word "negro" in the title. Ironically, the Book of Negroes' title comes from an actual historical document which recorded the names of 3,000 African slaves who were moved from New York to Nova Scotia, then to Africa.

It is not the first time the title has stirred controversy. The Book of Negroes was called Someone Knows My Name in the US and Australia, while in Quebec, it was given the name of the main character and titled Aminata.

Here’s a painting to celebrate the start of a new week. This is from a photo that I took on the coast of the St. Lawrence River near Quebec City. I saw this little house tucked away and thought, “I will have to paint this someday!” I like the way it is so enclosed by trees. There was an old car and a tarp covering some junk in the foreground which I conveniently omitted.

I spent a little time this past week with friends in St. Donat, Quebec (on Lac Archambault), courtesy of a good friend and her daughter & son-in-law (Thanks, guys!) . Yeah, as you can see from the looks of the place, we were really roughing it (rolls eyes). Hee! This is a view from the dock, looking back at the house. I went a little “I’m still young, man!” on a trampoline (tried to do flips; whip-lashed my neck; consumed Motrin for a few days). But the half-hour in the jacuzzi took my mind off off the pain. The best part was the conversations we all had: rich, deep, spiritual talks about who and where we are in our lives. I’m still amazed at coming together with people I’ve never met and walking away with how awesome people are as we traverse life.

Aren’t I the reflective one!

Speaking of reflective (That’s a segway to the water, there: water…reflection. I know you got it on your own. Sorry. : ), here’s a sketch looking the other way from the dock…across the lake. Hopefully this will kick-start me into doing more sketching. I have been too far removed from art, sketching, etc. for so long. Come back, art muse…Come back..!

A weekend or two ago, I visited my first Sugar Shack (or cabane a sucre). I always heard about this Quebecois tradition, but never quite managed to make the time to experience it for myself. So I and a few friends (and half of Montreal, it seemed! It was crowded.) went to Sucrerie de la Montagne in Regaud, Quebec on a bright, coolish, spring Sunday afternoon. What was the experience like? Photos and brief commentary below.

Below: Outside the main building where the banquet halls are to eat are located.

Below: Buckets on trees. Note. Snow on ground and noooo leaves. Arg!

Below: Things you do while waiting to eat…

Below: Inside the main banquet hall you….

Below: The main course…

Below: After all the maple sugar-laden food, wine & song, life looked like this…

Just kidding. : ) A fun time was had by all. I cut loose and played the wooden spoons. A lot. Must have been the maple wine (was it maple…? Everything was MAPLE!).

Today was a nice day, over all. One of the nicest things I did today was something simple: picnicking outside by the water for lunch. I also took a book with me and read a little (Bob Spitz’s tome, The Beatles), which was still in my backpack when I took the pic and drew the sketch. There was  a guy on the water nearby doing a little kite boarding, and it was just so lovely to sit in the shade and spend a little time with the sun and breeze. I am going to try and do this every day until it’s too cold to be outside. I will miss summer.

Sketch of my view, albeit more of a panorama. I, uhm, reiterate my lunch menu. Sorry about that!

I’m posting some sketches from some quieter moments during a busy as well as relaxing, enjoyable, weekend.

The first is from an early dinner I had Sunday at a restaurant called Dundees on the boardwalk in Sainte Anne de Bellevue. The meal? Eh. I had a fish plate but it’s probably best to just get a burger and fries at a place like this. It’s not enjoyable eating food that’s sub-par but at least I had a nice place to contemplate that. I sketched this before the food came out.

After dinner, I drove through Senneville and stopped at a park on the water to do more sketching. I believe this is the first time I’ve sketched from here. It was so peaceful and serene.  I should come here more often.

Oh. I almost forgot about this. Earlier on Sunday morning, I was bicycling around the area and saw this fellow setting up to paint. It looked like he was going to paint the small, brick out-building there, but surely he was going to paint sailboats at the yacht club (Pointe Claire). I did come back about 2 hours later to see if I could see the results, but he was just pulling out in his car when I returned. Ah well. It shall forever remain a mystery.

It’s concerts-in-the-park time here on the West Island! And, finally, one is actually IN the park!

I pedaled down to Beaconsfield’s Centennial Park last night to check out the music of The Centennial Band (put together for just this occasion). They played a string of 30′s and early 40′s hits of the Big Band era–String of Pearls, Sing! Sing! Sing!, In The Mood, etc. A 15-piece combo of local musicians who did a fantastic job on these songs. Well done, Beaconsfield!

Below: Me and my sketchbook. I was just getting started.

Below: The actual sketch. I was getting frustrated as things just wouldn’t translate as I wanted them to on the paper. Bah!

Below: A brief video to share. They sound good, hmmm? As you can see, it was a hot evening, what with the fans.

So I hope this encourages you to get out and enjoy the summer days/evenings! Do some sketching, picture taking–whatever helps you to document the moment!

The sketch, below:

The above is a case where anything can become a story, I guess. It’s just a quickly done cartoon version of my yesterday evening. And, yes, I was wearing hot pink shorts. They are too comfortable to be worried about how they look. And I have no idea how to draw a hazy horizon, but I tried to capture the moment.

This is an event from last Thursday, which was the St. Jean Baptist celebration here in Quebec. Many of the villages/towns/boroughs in the area had staged celebrations, festivals & fireworks. It had rained in the late afternoon and with that brought cooler temperatures. My husband was spending the day with his brother and I was on my own. Until early evening, that is, when there was a knock on the door and–Surprise! We had a visit from an old friend!  And he had no problem accompanying me down to the yacht club to watch the fireworks from the docks, as well as spend some time catching up. Ah, summer!

Two quick sketches from a lunch/picnic break in the park on Tuesday. I’m chomping on one of my faves, there: Chinese Chicken Salad. Cabbage, lettuce, broccoli, green onions, chicken, cashews… I can eat a huuuge bowl of it. And I did. Yum.

Below: a sketch of Lake St. Louie. The water and sky were both a pale blue-gray.

So today is “Fete National”–A Quebec holiday. Retail and grocery stores are closed and all the towns and villages are having festivals and parties, and in the late evening, fireworks. Woo hoo.

I had planned on sketching during church but the thing turned into sort of a cartoon play-by-play of the service. I missed the first half hour as we were standing and singing, etc. (heavy congregational participation) so it wasn’t really conducive for sketching at that point anyway.

My how the weather is changing! May has been on the cool side most of the month, but starting yesterday, it’s warmed up into the 70’s! With sunshine and all the good stuff that makes up a lovely spring day! Mid-afternoon, I took myself and some of my work and we bicycled down to the [...]

I left my camera at home. Of course. So this image and others are borrowed until I reach Halifax. that's fine though. If I had a camera I'd find it distracting, always being tempted to take photographs of cows. Right now I'm passing between Kingston Ontario and Montreal Quebec. I love how sitting on the train you're limited to a few activities. Reading, listening to music, writing, drawing, watching the scenery. Things that a busy life of full time work and parenthood don't always allow. I'll miss my family tonight in any case. I've been traveling a few hours and haven't been drawing but have been writing. I've been working on the Bera story. It's good so far but I'm trying trying to keep the language simple and I think it's sounding a bit heavy and even though it's a horror story I'm trying to avoid a morbid tone which a lot of horror writers adopt. I figure I'll be doing lots of writing over the trip.

(I got the photo here.)

I took my itsy bitsy sketchbook with me on a walk yesterday and managed to do a quick sketch or three. These are not all that exciting, I admit. I was cold (I didn’t hide that fact!) and didn’t particularly enjoy my time outside. The trees are still just  budding, as you can see. I’m [...]

This was my view during the sermon Sunday morning as Peter Aitkens delivered the sermon. Peter’s an artist/painter and so narrated the story of Jesus appearing (post resurrection) to some of his disciples (Luke 24:13-35) through a series of fabulous drawings he did. They were displayed on the overhead as he walked us through the [...]

Took a few photos along the way.

Just some sketches from yesterday’s church service. I struggled this Sunday with feeling comfortable sketching with people around; feeling conspicuous. I did these while sitting in the far back. One positive thing is that I noticed that the sketching was getting to be more habitual…or automated. Not sure what word to use for this, but [...]

But is there anything else in early February in Montreal? It’s a big church to warm up. There are large vents on each side of the sanctuary that put out heat. People will congregate there to warm themselves before sitting down. I spent a good part of the service in front of one myself. But when [...]

Below: I took a walk yesterday on Lac St-Louis. It’s frozen over solid presently. You can see other folks and critters venturing out for a hike as well. This is also a popular area for the winter parasailers. Below: The Christmas tree in front of Bilboquet (an ice cream shop) in the Pointe Claire Village.  And [...]

I looked up and thought I noticed a faint pink in the blue sky; so faint, I had to squint and rub my eyes and…Oh. No, that’s because I’m tired. I’ve thought time after time about sketching the winter scene from my window so this time, instead of just thinking about it, I pulled up a [...]

To get some exercise, I’ve been taking daily walks in the area. Sometimes I’m out in the early mornings, other times in the afternoon. The Pointe Claire Village is a beautiful place for walking, as you get many fine views of the St. Lawrence River to motivate you onward. So this week I took some [...]